| Burmese - Mon |
English
Karen, Shan, Chinese
|
| Papapana - Rotokas |
Tok Pisin, English
|
| Maltese - Sicilian (modern) |
The most formal language was Latin, which was exclusively written (eg. notarial acts, religion, administration, and culture). The use of Italian increased gradually from the 17th century onwards in administration and in the production of local literary works.
|
| Maltese - Sicilian (historical) |
Latin, (Tuscan) Italian.
|
| Ndebele - Tjwao |
Kalanga
|
| Korandje - North African Arabic |
Literary Arabic (Modern Standard/Classical)
French
English
|
| FLNA-NLNA |
English used to be quite developed in the traditional Country A curriculum (until the 1980s at least), after which successive politics of Macro-Neighbourization led to an increased dominance of Macro-Neighbour. Therefore, a lot of Focus people who were educated in the second half of the 20th century also have a good command of English and were exposed to English during a significant part of their formal instruction.
When the second Country A civil war began, the Focus area was split into two:
(i) government-held schools, where Macro-Neighbour was the dominant medium of instruction.
(ii) rebels-held schools, where Macro-Neighbour was replaced by English as a medium of instruction from the mid-1980s onwards. It also seems that Swahili was sometimes introduced as an additional language in rebels-held schools but knowledge of Swahili is not widespread even in the rebellion-held area.
|
| Zaza - Turkish |
Kurmanji
|
| Temoaya Otomi - Mexican Spanish |
None.
|
| Mawng - Kunbarlang |
Varieties of Bininj Kunwok, Maningrida family languages, other Iwaidjan family languages and Macassan pidgin.
|
| Santali - Bengali |
Hindi
English
|
| Bade - Manga Kanuri |
Arabic, especially in the domains of religion and legal system.
Today Hausa is also used in religious contexts.
|
| Muak Sa-aak - Tau Lü |
Shan, in church.Burmese, as the language of education. Chinese, mainly in the past ten years or so as a language of education.
|
| Sibe - Uighur |
Chinese, Russian, Kazakh, Mongolian, Tatar
|
| Toba - Spanish |
Wichí and Mocoví (Moqoit).
|
| Western Toba - Wichí |
Spanish.
|
| Paluai - Tok Pisin |
English
|
| South Saami - NorwegianSwedish |
The Saamic languages comprise today several different languages and they form a dialect continuum. Naturally, a person might have more or less knowledge of a neighbouring language variety. It is difficult to assess whether this knowledge was only passive or also active. There has been an attempt to implement a common written Saami language (“sydlapska bokspråket”), which, however, did not prove useful for Saami from other areas.
|
| Yurok - Karuk |
Hupa
Wiyot
|
| Wutun - Bonan |
[Amdo Tibetan, and possibly Salar (a Turkic language), but this would have been very minor]
|