| Burmese - Mon |
Shan (since 14th century)
Chinese (probably since 11th/12th century)
British (since 19th century)
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| Papapana - Rotokas |
Uruava, Torau and Mono speakers. Papapana ancestors were part of a migration from the south of Bougainville in the mid–19th century which settled first in the area around Kieta and Arawa (the once Uruava-speaking area), moved north up the eastern coast to the contemporary Papapana-speaking area, Teperoi, before moving south again, with a possible halt in Vito (contemporary Torau-speaking area), before settling in Teperoi in the late–19th century. Although Ross (1988) placed Papapana in the Nehan-North Bougainville subgroup of Northwest Solomonic (containing the languages of northern Bougainville and Buka), there are similarities in lexicon and syntax which raise the possibility that Papapana is related more closely to Uruava, and perhaps even Torau and Mono. This is further supported by i) similar Papuan-induced grammatical changes in these four languages (Evans and Palmer 2011, Smith 2016), ii) 3 of the 6 Papapana clan names are cognate with Uruavan clan names (Palmer 2007), iii) the name Papapana could come from Uruava pa-papa-na ‘uncles (mother’s brothers)’ (Palmer 2007).
Teop speakers. It seems that the history of the Papapana community is further complicated by intermarriage and further migrations from the north, including Teop speakers. This is supported by i) one of the Papapana clan names is cognate with a Teop clan name, ii) historical records by a missionary in the 1930s comment that the houses in Teperoi showed traces of two different tribes – from Buka&the north, and from Kieta (south), iii) a trader’s travelogue comments that the village’s reconstruction was reinforced by immigrants from north Bougainville and east Buka.
Certainly in 2011-2013, there was intermarriage between Papapana speakers and Torau and Teop speakers (as well as other closely related languages like Halia and Tinputz).
There are similarities between Papapana and all the Northwest Solomonic languages above but it would be difficult to establish whether e.g. similar/identical lexemes result from genetic inheritance or contact.
Buin, Motuna/Siwai and Nasioi speakers. Speakers of these South Bougainville languages were recruited to work in the plantations surrounding Teperoi in the early 20th century. There are families in some of the Papapana villages like Maras and Kokoi, whose ancestors were Motuna or Buin speakers and who bought/were given Papapana land because they worked in the surrounding plantations. In 2011-2013 there were a number of intermarriages with Buin, Motuna/Siwai and Nasioi speakers, as well as Rotokas. This contact could have contributed, along with Rotokas, to the partial shift from left-headedness to right-headedness in Papapana (Smith 2016). There are also words in Papapana which are similar/identical to Rotokas but I don't know the direction of influence.
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| Maltese - Sicilian (modern) |
As for the other domains.
From the 14th to the mid 16th century immigration from Sicily was very strong. This produced a strong Siciian influence on Maltese phonetics and lexicon, but did not change the basic structure of the language. It increased during the times of the Knights of St John, but so did the presence of "continental" Italians, French and Spanish persons. There was also a strong influx in the Risorgimento (1840-1870) which strenghthened the position of Italian and introduced the genre of the historical novel, with its Romantic and patriotic ideals. Nowadays, lexical innovation comes mainly from English.
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| Maltese - Sicilian (historical) |
As with other domains, (Tuscan) Italian and later English. Italian started to creep in in schools afte the time arrival of The Order of St John in 1530, and English after 1800.
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| Ndebele - Tjwao |
The Ndebele people interacted with the Shona and Kalanga people in the past.
They are loan words of Shona and Kalanga in Ndebele
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| Korandje - North African Arabic |
Berber speakers:
- Zenaga - ca. 1200-1600? certainly in medieval Islamic higher education; loanwords
French speakers:
- ca. 1950-1962 at school (and later on in university contexts); loanwords
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| FLNA-NLNA |
Language X (as the Focus lexicon has a Language X layer in the domains of technology and religion) but this influence must have taken place a lot of time ago (many centuries)
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| Zaza - Turkish |
Kurmanji group, Armenian group
Linguistic consequences: Loanwords, with Kurmanji: probably morphological interaction
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| Marind - Marori |
Marind religion seems to have been adopted by the Yelmek/Maklew people. There seem to be influences from Kanum (Yam-speaking) groups into Marind.
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| Temoaya Otomi - Mexican Spanish |
None.
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| Mawng - Kunbarlang |
Indigenous Australian groups who were speakers of varieties of Bininj Kunwok, other Iwaidjan family languages and Maningridan family languages. Macassan sailors who came to the north coast of Australia to collect sea cucumbers, trepang.
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| Alorese - Adang |
People from Pura, some speak Reta, some speak Blagar. There are some Blagar loan words in Alorese.
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| Santali - Bengali |
Not applicable.
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| Bade - Manga Kanuri |
Hausa has probably been expanding for the past two hundred years, but its spread during the past half century has been particularly dramatic, particularly in northern Nigeria. Thus one finds that in urban areas like Gashua and Potiskum, Hausa is rapidly establishing itself as a mother tongue for many of the inhabitants, or, if it is not replacing the indigenous language(s), it is at least being used on a day-to-day basis as a lingua franca.
English which nowadays is primarily used in the western education system.
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| Muak Sa-aak - Tau Lü |
In the past: Tai Lue; Tai Lue literacy was taught in the monasteries in the past.
Current:
Burmese; some children began attending Burmese language school about 25 years ago.
Chinese; many children are now in Chinese language schools.
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| Sibe - Uighur |
Kazakh (mainly 1800 - present
Russian (mainly between 1900s and 1960s)
Chinese (since 1950)
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| Toba - Spanish |
In the domains of education and religion, Toba groups are in contact with neighbouring groups like Wichí, Mocoví and Pilagá. However, linguistic influence among these groups is still unclear and new specific studies have to be made.
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| Western Toba - Wichí |
In the knowledge domain of the Anglican Church, the interactions are mainly between Western Toba, Wichí, and non-indigenous Spanish-speaking pastors.
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| Paluai - Tok Pisin |
Titan speakers: one particular church denomination has many Titan speakers as its members. It is possible that some Titan words were borrowed into Paluai as a result. This interaction has happened in the past 50 years.
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| South Saami - NorwegianSwedish |
B
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| Yurok - Karuk |
Focus Group = Yurok; Neighbor Group = Karuk; Other Group = Hupa
Linguistic Consequence = Adaptation of narratives and ritual formulas into Yurok
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| Wutun - Bonan |
[Amdo Tibetan speakers. There were other groups of people in the area, but not in the religious domain.]
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