| Burmese - Mon |
Shan (probably since 13th/14th century)
Chinese (probably since 18th century)
Karen (probably since 12th/13th century
|
| Kambaata - Wolaytta |
Hadiyya
Halaaba
Amhara
(in the past and ongoing)
|
| Langi - Alagwa |
19th century interactions
Swahili traders
Elephant hunters (Kamba and Swahili)
Nyamwezi (porters on the trade routes)
Datooga (salt trade)
Burunge
20th century interactions
Iraqw
Gorwaa
|
| Papapana - Rotokas |
[See comment]
|
| Maltese - Sicilian (modern) |
The Maltese lexicon, as registered in the most authoritative Maltese-English Dictionary (Joseph Aquilina, 1987-1990) is composed for 52.38% of Sicilian and Italian words, 32.41% Arabic, 6.12% English, but the words of Arabic origin are more frequently used (grammatical terms and hypernyms or common vocabulary).
Its stratigraphy is: Arabic: from 1000 to 1241;
Sicilian: 1184 to 1530;
Italian: from 1530 to the present;
English from 1814 to the present.
|
| Maltese - Sicilian (historical) |
See my comments to DLB01 and DLB05. In addition to Sicilian, Italian and English are the most linguistically influential contacts.
|
| Ndebele - Tjwao |
Kalanga
Tonga
Shona
|
| Kwoma - Manambu |
1. Kwoma commonly fought alongside, and against, different Kaunga-speaking groups (Ndu family) to their east from the beginning of the 19th century until the 1950s, and communicated with them in both Kaunga and Kwoma; there has also been substantial intermarriage between the Kaunga and Kwoma during the same period, which continues today. Segments of both groups also reqularly participated in each other’s rituals, which required a high level of understanding of the host’s language, though whether this always required bilingualism is difficult to say. More than one Kwoma clan today is also descended from Kaunga-speaking immigrants.
2. Prior to 1950, Kwoma frequently fought against Apukili speakers to their north. This is now a defunct group which spoke a different language. This has not yet been identified but was probably Kwanga (the language spoken by a large population to the north of the Kwoma). Kwanga is the language most closely related to Kwoma. Kwoma also participated in Apukili rituals on a regular basis and many men spoke Apukili and vice versa. Some Kwoma clans trace their descent from the Apukili. Kwoma also say that many of their rituals are Apukili in origin.
3. Between the 1880s and 1920s the Kwoma occasionally fought against Iatmul speakers (Ndu family) now located at Brugnowi village, with whom they today have an active trading relationship. But contact with the Brugnowi has been relatively slight compared to that historically with the Kaunga (see above), the Manambu, and speakers of Mayo (Tama family) and Ngala (see below). In addition, there has never been intermarriage between Kwoma and Brugnowi.
4. From the earliest remembered time times (c1800) up to the 1950s Kwoma fought alongside Mayo speakers of the Maio dialect (Tama family), whose settlements today are located to the west in the Yesan (= Yessan) Hills at Maio and Yesan (= Yessan) villages. During the last third of the 19th century the people now located at those two villages shared the Washkuk Hills with Kwoma, and interacted with them intensively. Some Kwoma clans also trace their origins to immigrants from Mayo-speaking villages. Speakers of the Nukuma dialect of Kwoma had a similarly close relationship with speakers of the Yau dialect of the Mayo language, to their west.
5. Between c1820 and c1860 Kwoma shared the Washkuk Hills with a Ndu-speaking people named Ngala. They interacted socially and probably intermarried, and many spoke the other’s language since they frequently participated in each other’s rituals. Eventually the two groups came into conflict and a combined of Kwoma and Maio dialect (Mayo language group) drove the Ngala out. The only Ngala speakers left today are at Swagup village further up the Sepik, a one-village language group.
|
| Korandje - North African Arabic |
French soldiers and administrators, during the colonial period. Linguistic consequence: probably, loan words of French into Korandje (but hard to distinguish from ones which arrived later)
West African slaves, during the pre-colonial period. Linguistic consequence: possibly a few loans from Hausa and Dogon into Korandje (still debatable)
Zenaga Berber-speaking herdsmen, during the pre-colonial period. Linguistic consequence: Berber terminology in the domain of livestock.
|
| FLNA-NLNA |
Language N
Language O
|
| Zaza - Turkish |
Kurmanji, Armenian= Loanwords and maybe somewhat morphological interaction
|
| Yuhup - Macuna |
Tanimuca (60 years-present)
Yucuna (60 years-present)
|
| Temoaya Otomi - Mexican Spanish |
Focus Group = Toluca (Temoaya) Otomi
Neighbour Group = Spanish Mexican
Other Group = Nahuatl
Linguistic Consequence = Loan translation of Toluca (Temoaya) Otomi into Nahuatl. Loan words of Nahuatl into Toluca (Temoaya) Otomi.
Contact between the Otomí and the Nahuatl began in the 10th century, when the Nahuas arrived in the Mexican highlands (Ecker 1966, Bartholomew 2000). In the beginning, Nahuatl must have been influenced by Otomí since it was the dominant culture. However, from the 13th century, the Otomi were subdued by the Aztecs, Nahuatl became the dominant language and the roles were reversed
|
| Mawng - Kunbarlang |
Varieties of Bininj Kunwok, Maningrida family languages, other Iwaidjan family languages
|
| Santali - Bengali |
Hindi and Odia speaking people.
Worked with Hindi speaking people before 1956 when reorganization of states took place.
Worked with Odia speaking people till 1912 when Odisha and Bihar were parts of Greater Bengal.
In 1912 Bihar and Odisha were separated from Bengal.
Moreover, the Santali people residing in West Bengal have relatives and acquaintances in Jharkhand, Bihar and Odisha, who are Santali-Odia and Santali-Hindi bilinguals. The Santali people of West Bengal also visit these states and sometimes work with the Odia speaking and Hindi speaking people.
|
| Bade - Manga Kanuri |
Hausa
Fulani
|
| Muak Sa-aak - Tau Lü |
B
|
| Sibe - Uighur |
Chinese, ca. 1850s - present. Linguistic consequence: Chinese loan words in Sibe
Kazakh: ca. 1850s - present. Linguistic consequences: Kazakh loan words in SIbe, possible influence on Sibe phonology.
Russian ca. 1850s - present. Linguistic consequences: Russian loan words in Sibe
|
| Toba - Spanish |
In the past, Toba people interacted with neighboring indigenous groups (Pilagá, Mocoví, Wichí, and Guaraní) working in the harvest, in mills and cotton mills. And more recently, at schools.
|
| Western Toba - Wichí |
Other Gropus: Tapiete, Ava-guaraní, Chorote, Nivaclé, Pilagá, Quechua, and Aymara. We estimate that a hypothetical linguistic consequence could be pattern borrowing.
We analyze a pattern borrowing instance in the pronominal verbal indexes in Western Toba in Carpio, María Belén, González, Raúl Eduardo, and Mendoza, Marcela. Grammatical replication: First-person nonsingular verbal indexes in Eastern Toba, Western Toba (Guaicuruan) and Tapiete (Tupi-Guaraní). Lenguaje. 49(1). 47-75. ISSN: 2539-3804. https://doi.org/10.25100/lenguaje.v49i1.9134
|
| Paluai - Tok Pisin |
B
|
| Nen - Idi |
The usual.
|
| Burarra - Yolngu Matha |
[See comment]
|
| Kupwar Marathi - Kupwar Kannada |
I am not aware of any other social group.
|
| Aleut - Eyak |
Dena'ina and/or other Dene groups (ca. 3000 BP to at least 1500 BP; probably to at least 800 BP through institution of slavery); linguistic consequences include some ancient loanwords between the two groups (cf. Kari and Berge 2020), as well as grammatical influence from Dene to Aleut (cf. Berge 2016, forthcoming)
Alutiiq (ca 800 BP to present); linguistic consequences include loanwords mostly from Aleut to Alutiiq to Dena'ina (cf. Berge 2017, 2018),
|
| Wutun - Bonan |
Amdo Tibetans (since the emergence of Wutun language until present)
Han Chinese (since 2000s)
|