| Nuxalk - North Wakashan |
In regards to the multiple origins and non-Salish aspects of Nuxalk, note that: (a) the Salish portion of this language appears to have originated in the vicinity of the Olympic peninsula (southern maritime British Columbia – northwest Washington State west of the Cascades); (b) Nuxalk has a number of Tsimshianic and other “Penutian” (including Chinook Proper) features and morphemes not shared with other Salish; (c) there was once regular contact – resulting in vocabulary copying – with Athabascan populations east, northeast, and north of the Nuxalk domain.
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| Burmese - Mon |
Pyu (probably 8th to 10th century)
Shan (probably since 14th century)
Karen (probably since 11th century)
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| Papapana - Rotokas |
Uruava, Torau and Mono speakers. Papapana ancestors were part of a migration from the south of Bougainville in the mid–19th century which settled first in the area around Kieta and Arawa (the once Uruava-speaking area), moved north up the eastern coast to the contemporary Papapana-speaking area, Teperoi, before moving south again, with a possible halt in Vito (contemporary Torau-speaking area), before settling in Teperoi in the late–19th century. Although Ross (1988) placed Papapana in the Nehan-North Bougainville subgroup of Northwest Solomonic (containing the languages of northern Bougainville and Buka), there are similarities in lexicon and syntax which raise the possibility that Papapana is related more closely to Uruava, and perhaps even Torau and Mono. This is further supported by i) similar Papuan-induced grammatical changes in these four languages (Evans and Palmer 2011, Smith 2016), ii) 3 of the 6 Papapana clan names are cognate with Uruavan clan names (Palmer 2007), iii) the name Papapana could come from Uruava pa-papa-na ‘uncles (mother’s brothers)’ (Palmer 2007).
Teop speakers. It seems that the history of the Papapana community is further complicated by intermarriage and further migrations from the north, including Teop speakers. This is supported by i) one of the Papapana clan names is cognate with a Teop clan name, ii) historical records by a missionary in the 1930s comment that the houses in Teperoi showed traces of two different tribes – from Buka&the north, and from Kieta (south), iii) a trader’s travelogue comments that the village’s reconstruction was reinforced by immigrants from north Bougainville and east Buka.
Certainly in 2011-2013, there was intermarriage between Papapana speakers and Torau and Teop speakers (as well as other closely related languages like Halia and Tinputz).
There are similarities between Papapana and all the Northwest Solomonic languages above but it would be difficult to establish whether e.g. similar/identical lexemes result from genetic inheritance or contact.
Buin, Motuna/Siwai and Nasioi speakers. Speakers of these South Bougainville languages were recruited to work in the plantations surrounding Teperoi in the early 20th century. There are families in some of the Papapana villages like Maras and Kokoi, whose ancestors were Motuna or Buin speakers and who bought/were given Papapana land because they worked in the surrounding plantations. In 2011-2013 there were a number of intermarriages with Buin, Motuna/Siwai and Nasioi speakers, as well as Rotokas. This contact could have contributed, along with Rotokas, to the partial shift from left-headedness to right-headedness in Papapana (Smith 2016). There are also words in Papapana which are similar/identical to Rotokas but I don't know the direction of influence.
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| Maltese - Sicilian (modern) |
On the basis of the more common surnames in Malta:
1. Italians; 2. English; 3. French; 4. Spanish.
Lexical enrichment for the Maltese language came / comes mostly form Sicilian and Italian (52.46%) and English (6%).
The Concise dictionary, based on actual usage, shows higher figures for both: Italian 62%, English 8.45%.
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| Maltese - Sicilian (historical) |
In addition to Sicilian, Italian and English are the most linguistically influential contacts.
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| Ndebele - Tjwao |
Kalanga
Tonga
Zulu
Shona
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| Kwoma - Manambu |
See answers to previous questions. From the beginning of the nineteenth century Kwoma have actively interacted for the purposes of exchange (1) with the neighbouring Kaunga (Ndu-speakrs) to the north and north-east in the contexts of trade, ceremony (up to the 1980s), and intermarriage (on-going); (2) with the Ndu-speaking Ngala to the south between around 1820 and 1860 in the contexts of ritual and intermarriage; (3) with the Mayo (Tama family) to the west on an on-going basis in the context of ritual and probably intermarriage; and (4) with the Iatmul-speaking Brugnowi (Ndu family) to the south since the 1920s in the context of group trade at market sites midway between their territories. Interaction in marriage and ceremony was also common from the earliest times (c. 1800) to 1950 with the Apukili to the north, but their language has not been identified. It was probably Kwanga, which belongs to the same - Nukuma - family as Kwoma.
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| Korandje - North African Arabic |
Any that passed by - see previous questionnaires
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| Zaza - Turkish |
Kurdisch people and maybe Armenian people in Dersim
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| Ipili - Hewa |
Enga, for hundreds of years
Huli, for hundreds of years
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| Yuhup - Macuna |
The Yuhup have had contact with the Tanimuca people and the Yucuna people for many years; but it is not clear for me if this contact has had linguistic consequences. I guess not, since the Macuna language is used in these exchanges as lingua franca.
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| Temoaya Otomi - Mexican Spanish |
Contact between the Otomi and Nahuatl began in the 10th century. At the beginning of contact, Nahuatl must have been influenced by the Otomi since it was the dominant culture. However, as the Otomi were subdued by the Aztecs, the roles were reversed and from the 13th century, Nahuatl became the dominant language until the Spanish arrived in the 15th century (Hekking y Bakker 2010: 31).
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| Mawng - Kunbarlang |
Mawng practiced social exchange with speakers of varieties of Bininj Kunwok, Maningrida family languages and other Iwaidjan family languages. These people all participated in ceremonial exchange during the focus period 1600-1800.
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| Bade - Manga Kanuri |
Hausa (50-100 years)
Fulani
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| Muak Sa-aak - Tau Lü |
There could be marriage with Chinese people nowadays.
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| Toba - Spanish |
Pilagá, Mocoví, Wichí. "the communication phenomena among the traditional peoples of the Gran Chaco undoubtedly depend upon the referred social model characterized by progressively inclusive unities, of which more or less stable alliances of bands -which traditionally wandered around a specific territory- were the most extense political groupings. Besides, because inside them most exchanges of any kind happend, they defined the ares of solidarity and common historical awareness [...] These band alliances, which we regularly call 'tribes', DEMEographically restricted to around a few thousand individuals, concentrated most circuits of marriage, good and linguistic exchanges. On the other hand, there was communication of an intensity that was quantitatively less and qualitatively different among neighbouring tribes, be it circumstantial alliances with extra-tribal purposes, or reciprocal theft of goods or woman and children." (Braunstein 2005)
It is estimated that since pre-colonial times, before contact with the Spanish Group.
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| Western Toba - Wichí |
Tapietes, Nivaclés, Pilagás, Avá-guaraníes, and Chanés. At least since the 19th Century, but probably before.
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| Paluai - Tok Pisin |
B
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| Nen - Idi |
The usual: Nmbo, Neme, Nambo, perhaps a handful of Täme (Pahoturi)
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| Burarra - Yolngu Matha |
In the focus period pre-colonially, some minor linguistic influence is likely to have resulted from social exchange with the western Arnhem bloc, plausibly the Bininj Kunwok varieties and the other Maningrida languages (Ndjébbana, Na-kara and Gurr-goni). Also possibly Rembarrnga to the south.
In contemporary times, the picture is quite different but Burarra's status as a common L2 for all these language groups is likely to have resulted in some simplification and dialect levelling of modern day Burarra as spoken in Maningrida
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| South Saami - NorwegianSwedish |
B
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