| Burmese - Mon |
Shan (probably since 14th century)
Karen (probably since 13th century)
Chinese (more recent)
|
| Kambaata - Wolaytta |
Alaaba
Hadiyya
(since they settled beside each other)
|
| Langi - Alagwa |
Mbugwe
Burunge
Swahili traders
|
| Papapana - Rotokas |
Uruava, Torau and Mono speakers. Papapana ancestors were part of a migration from the south of Bougainville in the mid–19th century which settled first in the area around Kieta and Arawa (the once Uruava-speaking area), moved north up the eastern coast to the contemporary Papapana-speaking area, Teperoi, before moving south again, with a possible halt in Vito (contemporary Torau-speaking area), before settling in Teperoi in the late–19th century. Although Ross (1988) placed Papapana in the Nehan-North Bougainville subgroup of Northwest Solomonic (containing the languages of northern Bougainville and Buka), there are similarities in lexicon and syntax which raise the possibility that Papapana is related more closely to Uruava, and perhaps even Torau and Mono. This is further supported by i) similar Papuan-induced grammatical changes in these four languages (Evans and Palmer 2011, Smith 2016), ii) 3 of the 6 Papapana clan names are cognate with Uruavan clan names (Palmer 2007), iii) the name Papapana could come from Uruava pa-papa-na ‘uncles (mother’s brothers)’ (Palmer 2007).
Teop speakers. It seems that the history of the Papapana community is further complicated by intermarriage and further migrations from the north, including Teop speakers. This is supported by i) one of the Papapana clan names is cognate with a Teop clan name, ii) historical records by a missionary in the 1930s comment that the houses in Teperoi showed traces of two different tribes – from Buka&the north, and from Kieta (south), iii) a trader’s travelogue comments that the village’s reconstruction was reinforced by immigrants from north Bougainville and east Buka.
Certainly in 2011-2013, there was intermarriage between Papapana speakers and Torau and Teop speakers (as well as other closely related languages like Halia and Tinputz).
There are similarities between Papapana and all the Northwest Solomonic languages above but it would be difficult to establish whether e.g. similar/identical lexemes result from genetic inheritance or contact.
Buin, Motuna/Siwai and Nasioi speakers. Speakers of these South Bougainville languages were recruited to work in the plantations surrounding Teperoi in the early 20th century. There are families in some of the Papapana villages like Maras and Kokoi, whose ancestors were Motuna or Buin speakers and who bought/were given Papapana land because they worked in the surrounding plantations. In 2011-2013 there were a number of intermarriages with Buin, Motuna/Siwai and Nasioi speakers, as well as Rotokas. This contact could have contributed, along with Rotokas, to the partial shift from left-headedness to right-headedness in Papapana. There are also words in Papapana which are similar/identical to Rotokas but I don't know the direction of influence.
|
| Maltese - Sicilian (modern) |
The influence of the Sicilian dialect on the Maltese language was strongest between 1200 and 1530, when Chancery Sicilian was the language of administration, and up to about 1700, as an informal and occasional vehicle mainly in the lower social labour groups. From 1530 onwards Italian became the language of administration, culture and instruction, and enriched the Maltese lexicon for up to 60%. In 1946 primary education became compulsory and only Maltese and English are taught. English is therefore increasingly enriching the Maltese lexicon with new words, and in informal conversation a lot of code-switching goes on.
|
| Maltese - Sicilian (historical) |
See my comments to DLC01. In addition to Sicilian, Italian and English are the most linguistically influential contacts.
|
| Ndebele - Tjwao |
Zulu people =South Africa (before Mzilikazi fled away from the Zulu kingdom)
Shona people = (pre-colonial era)
Kalanga people =Zimbabwe (pre-colonial era)
Tonga people= Zambia, Zimbabwe (pre-colonial era)
They are a lot of borrowed words from these languages
|
| Kwoma - Manambu |
1) From the beginning of the 19th century to the present adult Kwoma men and women have interacted regularly with Kaunga speakers (Ndu family), a) when participating in each other's rituals (up to the 1990s), b) following intermarriage, which entails regular interaction between the families involved, c) when participating in large-scale events other than rituals, such as marriage, puberty and death payments (which continue today), and d) before 1950 during warfare when segments of both groups participated in attacks on third parties. Speakers of both the Kwoma and Nukuma dialects of the language have had equally intense contact with Kaunga speakers.
2) The Kwoma also had close ties to the Ngala (Ndu family) between roughly 1820 and 1860, and
3) from the earliest times to the present with neighbouring Mayo-speaking groups (Tama family) to the west.
|
| Korandje - North African Arabic |
Amazigh (Ayt Khebbach), 19th c. (immigrant founders of some of the main families of Tabelbala) - loanwords
Zenaga speakers (probable founding elite of the oasis, 12th-16th c.??) - loanwords
Slaves speaking various languages, probably including Hausa and Dogon (12th-19th c.?) - some possible loanwords
|
| FLNA-NLNA |
Language N
Language O
|
| Zaza - Turkish |
Kurmanji
Armenian
|
| Ipili - Hewa |
Enga, for at least several centuries. Huli, for at least several centuries.
|
| Marind - Marori |
Over the last millenium or so, there must have been contact with speakers of Yam, Awyu, Yelmek-Maklew, Kuni-Boazi languages, as suggested by a small number of loans and some instances of structural influence.
A very small number of possible loans suggest early contact with some unknown Oceanic group(s).
Last 100 years: intense contact with varieties of Malay/Indonesian.
|
| Chipaya - Central Aymara |
Other Group = Quechua-speaking colonists that conquered the Bolivian Altiplano some time during the 14th century (or earlier).
Other Group = Spanish-speaking colonists and missionaries; recent: teachers and modern media in Spanish. My impression is that Spanish gained importance only recently, i.e. about 40-50 years ago. Until then, the first and most important contact language of the Chipaya people was Aymara.
|
| Temoaya Otomi - Mexican Spanish |
If Focus Group = Toluca (Temoaya) Otomi; Neighbour Group = Mexican Spanish, then Other Group = Nahuatl. Linguistic Consequence = Loan words of Nahuatl into Otomi
According to Carrasco (1950), Otomi, Matlatzinca, Mazahua, and Nahuatl were spoken in Toluca during the 16th century, before the arrival of the Spanish. Well, Toluca was the main Matlatzinca center (Lastra 2010: 26).With respect to Nahuatl, the contact between the Otomi and the Nahuatl began in the 10th century. At the beginning of contact, Nahuatl must have been influenced by Otomi since it was the dominant culture. However, as they were subdued by the Aztecs, the roles were reversed and from the 13th century, Nahuatl became the dominant language until the Spanish arrived in the 15th century. (Hekking y Bakker 2010: 31). On the other hand, the Otomi influenced the Matlatzinca and Mazahua languages.
|
| Mawng - Kunbarlang |
During the time period 1600-1800 that is being considered here Mawng would have formed local communities with speakers of many languages. Bands moved around and were small but constantly changing in their composition. So the other groups would have been predominantly other western Arnhem Land coastal groups and also adjacent inland groups. The people Mawng people interacted with most were probably those whose country borders Mawng country: Iwaidja, Kunwinjku (Bininj Kunwok) and Kunbarlang as well as other languages that are no longer spoken.
|
| Alorese - Adang |
People from Pura, who are Reta speakers. We know from oral history that the islands of Ternate and Buaya are inhabited by Alorese people from Alor Besar village who were originally from Pura and were Reta speakers (see Sulistyono, ch. 3, PhD diss., 2022). Gomang (1993:59) reports that when the king’s house in Alor Besar village was restored in 1990 many people from villages on Pura also came to help.
|
| Santali - Bengali |
The Santali people who are now settled in West Bengal earlier formed local communities with the Hindi speaking Jharkhandies and Biharies, also with Odia speaking people before their dispersal in different places, roughly before 1912.
|
| Bade - Manga Kanuri |
Hausa (during the past 100 years). Fulani (coming from the West they are historically evident in the Kanem-Borno region starting from the 15th century)
|
| Muak Sa-aak - Tau Lü |
Prior to Tai Lue- not known.
Chinese- this is recent.
|
| Sibe - Uighur |
Kazakh (all the time - 1764 - present), Russians (ca, 1850-1950),Chinese (mainly after 1900),
|
| Toba - Spanish |
The Tobas formed local communities with the Wichi and the Mocovi since the sedentarization at the beginning of the century. We believe that this contact had no significant linguistic consequences for the Toba language.
|
| Western Toba - Wichí |
During the first half of the 20th Century, in the context of labouring in the sugar-cane plantations, Western Toba made friends and acquaintances with Avá-guaraníes, Tapietes, Nivaclés, Chanés, and Pilagás.
Possible linguistic consequence=pattern borrowing.
|
| Paluai - Tok Pisin |
B
|
| Nen - Idi |
Same as other domains.
|
| Burarra - Yolngu Matha |
The main groups are listed below. The time frames would have been similar to Yolngu Matha as far as I know – stretching back pre-colonially for at least several hundred years.
Na-kara
Gurr-goni
Rembarrnga
Dalabon
Kuninjku
Kune
|
| South Saami - NorwegianSwedish |
B
|
| Kupwar Marathi - Kupwar Kannada |
[See comment]
|
| Yurok - Karuk |
Focus Group = Yurok; Neighbor Group = Karuk; Other Groups = Hupa, Wiyot, Tolowa.
Linguistic Consequences = Multilingualism or bilingualism was relatively common throughout Northwestern California, Convergent changes in the organization of systems such as numerals, kin terms and the functions of systems such as classifiers and preverbal tense/aspect markers, Loan translations
|
| Aleut - Eyak |
post-800 BP, Alutiiq; loanwords from Aleut to Alutiiq and v.v.; some grammatical effects on Aleut but not much on Alutiiq
pre-1500 BP, Dena'ina; loanwords between the two language groups, grammatical effects on Aleut
|